EMPIRICAL METHODS IN AL-BIRUNI’S KITAB AL-JAMAHIR AND AL-ATHAR AL-BAQIYA

• Jahongir Rustam ogli Turdaliyev

  Author

The article examines empirical methods in Abu Rayhan al-Biruni’s “Kitāb al-Jamāhir fī ma‘rifat al-jawāhir” and “Al-Āthār al-bāqiya ‘an al-qurūn al-khāliya”. Kitab al-Jamahir is analyzed through mineralogical observation, classification of precious stones, specific weight, material properties, and practical testing, while Al-Athar al-Baqiya is examined through time reckoning, calendar systems, ancient chronologies, historical reports, and comparative source criticism. The study shows that observation, measurement, comparison, classification, calculation, verification, and critical treatment of sources were interconnected in Al-Biruni’s scholarly practice.

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